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M de Fost Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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S M Oussaada Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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E Endert Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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G E Linthorst Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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M J Serlie Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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M R Soeters Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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J H DeVries Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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P H Bisschop Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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E Fliers Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Laboratory of Endocrinology, Room F5‐164

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Introduction Polyuria (diuresis >3 l/day) in the absence of common causes, such as hypercalcemia, hyperglycemia, or relief of urinary tract obstruction, can be caused by diabetes insipidus (DI) or primary polydipsia (PP, also referred to as

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Julie Refardt Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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Clara Odilia Sailer Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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Bettina Winzeler Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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Matthias Johannes Betz Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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Irina Chifu Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany

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Ingeborg Schnyder Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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Martin Fassnacht Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
Central Laboratory, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany

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Wiebke Fenske Department of Endocrinology and Nephrology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
Leipzig University Medical Center, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany

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Mirjam Christ-Crain Departments of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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for the CODDI-Investigators
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Introduction Polyuria polydipsia syndrome is a common problem in clinical practice with the two main entities being primary polydipsia and central diabetes insipidus ( 1 ). While the pathomechanism of central diabetes insipidus is well known

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Laura Potasso Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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Julie Refardt Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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Irina Chifu Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg Germany

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Martin Fassnacht Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg Germany
Central Laboratory, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany

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Wiebke Kristin Fenske Integrated Research and Treatment Center for Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig University Medical Center, Leipzig, Germany
Leipzig University Medical Center, IFB Adiposity Diseases, Leipzig, Germany

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Mirjam Christ-Crain Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

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older, had a baseline sodium level 135–145 mmol/L, and a euvolemic status. Exclusion criteria included pregnancy, a history or presence of PPS, which comprises all forms of DI and primary polydipsia (PP), any chronic or therapy-requiring diseases

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Laura J Reid Edinburgh Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Bala Muthukrishnan Edinburgh Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Dilip Patel Department of Radiology, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Mike S Crane Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Murat Akyol Department of Surgery, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Andrew Thomson Department of Pathology, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Jonathan R Seckl Edinburgh Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Unit, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Fraser W Gibb Edinburgh Centre for Endocrinology and Diabetes, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Introduction Primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) is a common endocrine condition with a prevalence of 0.1–1%, a female preponderance and a strong association with ageing ( 1 , 2 ). In the modern era, PHPT is often detected incidentally through

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Yuan Liu Department of Endocrinology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Key Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Shandong Province Medicine & Health, Jinan, China

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Siyi Guo Department of Endocrinology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Key Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Shandong Province Medicine & Health, Jinan, China

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Jinsong Wu Department of Endocrinology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Key Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Shandong Province Medicine & Health, Jinan, China

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Rongai Wang Department of Endocrinology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Health Management Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang Chinese Medicine University, Zhejiang, China

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Jinbo Liu Department of Endocrinology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Key Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Shandong Province Medicine & Health, Jinan, China

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Yan Liu Department of Endocrinology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Key Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Shandong Province Medicine & Health, Jinan, China

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Bin Lv Department of Thyroid Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China

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Nan Liu Department of Thyroid Surgery, General Surgery, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China

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Ling Jiang Department of Endocrinology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Key Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Shandong Province Medicine & Health, Jinan, China

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Xiaoli Zhang Department of Endocrinology, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Institute of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases of Shandong University, Jinan, China
Key Laboratory of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, Shandong Province Medicine & Health, Jinan, China

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Introduction In the 1970s, due to the popularization of serum calcium (Ca) examination, a novel type of primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT) called asymptomatic PHPT (aPHPT) emerged. It lacks the typical clinical symptoms caused by excessive

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Dirk Weismann Department of Internal Medicine I, Intensivcare Unit, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany

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Andreas Schneider Department of Internal Medicine I, Intensivcare Unit, University Hospital of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany

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Charlotte Höybye Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
Department of Molecular Surgery and Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden

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U-osmolality >100 mOsm/kg points to SIAD <200 mOsm/kg in primary polydipsia U-Na and U-K (spot-check) U-Na <15 mmol/L proves a reduced arterial blood volume, e.g. in exsiccosis, liver cirrhosis S-Kalium Hypokalemia is a risk

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Nidan Qiao Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Clinical Medical Center of Neurosurgery, Shanghai, China
Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China

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Haixia Cheng Department of Pathology, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Shanghai, China

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Zhaoyun Zhang Department of Endocrinology, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Shanghai, China

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Hongying Ye Department of Endocrinology, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Shanghai, China

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Ming Shen Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Clinical Medical Center of Neurosurgery, Shanghai, China
Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China

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Xuefei Shou Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Clinical Medical Center of Neurosurgery, Shanghai, China
Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China

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Xiaoyun Cao Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Clinical Medical Center of Neurosurgery, Shanghai, China
Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China

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Hong Chen Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Clinical Medical Center of Neurosurgery, Shanghai, China
Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China
Department of Pathology, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Shanghai, China

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Xiang Zhou Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Clinical Medical Center of Neurosurgery, Shanghai, China
Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China

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Yongfei Wang Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Clinical Medical Center of Neurosurgery, Shanghai, China
Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China

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Yao Zhao Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical School, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
National Center for Neurological Disorders, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Clinical Medical Center of Neurosurgery, Shanghai, China
Neurosurgical Institute of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Brain Function and Restoration and Neural Regeneration, Shanghai, China

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Huashan Hospital institutional review board approved the study, and all of the patients gave their informed consent when their data were logged into the database. We recorded gender, age at diagnosis, symptoms (headache, visual defects, polydipsia and

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Aida Javanbakht Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA

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Massimo D’Apuzzo Department of Pathology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA

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Behnam Badie Department of Neurosurgery, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA

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Behrouz Salehian Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, California, USA

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and other primary pituitary tumors (germinoma, chordoma, meningioma, etc.) were excluded. Information abstracted from patient records included tumor origin, primary pituitary clinical presentation, age, sex, type of treatment, presence of other

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Daniel Bell Department of Pharmacy, Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Julia Hale Department of Endocrinology, Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Cara Go Department of Endocrinology, Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Ben G Challis Department of Endocrinology, Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Tilak Das Department of Radiology, Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Brian Fish Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Cambridge University NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK

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Ruth T Casey Department of Endocrinology, Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
Department of Medical Genetics, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK

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Introduction Primary hyperparathyroidism (pHPT) is a common endocrine disorder with a prevalence of 1–4 per 1000 and a 3 to 1 female to male ratio ( 1 ). It is characterised by inappropriate and excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH

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Jelena Stankovic Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark

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Kurt Kristensen Steno Diabetes Center Aarhus (SDCA), Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
Department of Pediatrics, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark

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Niels Birkebæk Department of Pediatrics, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark

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Jens Otto Lunde Jørgensen Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark

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Esben Søndergaard Department of Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
Steno Diabetes Center Aarhus (SDCA), Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark

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). The polyuria of PPS is characterized by a high output of hypotonic urine ( 2 ) and includes four conditions: arginine vasopressin (AVP) deficiency, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, primary polydipsia, and gestational diabetes insipidus. The water

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