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Benjamin G Challis Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK
Wolfson Diabetes and Endocrine Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK
IMED Biotech Unit, Clinical Discovery Unit, AstraZeneca, UK

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Andrew S Powlson Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK
Wolfson Diabetes and Endocrine Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Ruth T Casey Wolfson Diabetes and Endocrine Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Carla Pearson Wolfson Diabetes and Endocrine Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Brian Y Lam Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Marcella Ma Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Deborah Pitfield Wolfson Diabetes and Endocrine Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Giles S H Yeo Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Edmund Godfrey Department of Radiology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Heok K Cheow Department of Radiology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK
Department of Nuclear Medicine, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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V Krishna Chatterjee Metabolic Research Laboratories, Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, University of Cambridge and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK
Wolfson Diabetes and Endocrine Centre, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Nicholas R Carroll Department of Radiology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Ashley Shaw Department of Radiology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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John R Buscombe Department of Radiology, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK
Department of Nuclear Medicine, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK

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Helen L Simpson Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, UCLH NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Introduction Hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia (HH) is uncommon in otherwise healthy adults due to the existence of robust counter-regulatory homeostatic mechanisms that defend against falling blood glucose concentrations. A clinical diagnosis

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Marloes Emous Centre for Obesity Northern-Netherlands (CON), Medical Centre Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands

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Merel van den Broek Centre for Obesity Northern-Netherlands (CON), Medical Centre Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands

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Ragnhild B Wijma Centre for Obesity Northern-Netherlands (CON), Medical Centre Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands

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Loek J M de Heide Centre for Obesity Northern-Netherlands (CON), Medical Centre Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands

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Gertjan van Dijk GELIFES-Neurobiology, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

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Anke Laskewitz Certe Laboratories, Medical Center Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands

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Erik Totté Centre for Obesity Northern-Netherlands (CON), Medical Centre Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands

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Bruce H R Wolffenbuttel Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

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André P van Beek Centre for Obesity Northern-Netherlands (CON), Medical Centre Leeuwarden, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
Department of Endocrinology, University of Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

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accompanied by long-term complications such as postprandial hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia (PHH) ( 2 , 3 ). PHH typically occurs 1–3 h after a meal and can lead to autonomic and neuroglycopenic symptoms such as sweating, palpitations, hunger and drowsiness

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Peter L Kristensen Department of Cardiology, Nephrology and Endocrinology, Nordsjællands Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark

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Ulrik Pedersen-Bjergaard Department of Cardiology, Nephrology and Endocrinology, Nordsjællands Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark
Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Rikke Due-Andersen Department of Cardiology, Nephrology and Endocrinology, Nordsjællands Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark
Lægerne på Ellemarksvej, Køge, Denmark

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Thomas Høi-Hansen Department of Cardiology, Nephrology and Endocrinology, Nordsjællands Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark
Department of Cardiology, Herlev-Gentofte University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark

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Lise Grimmeshave Department of Cardiology, Nephrology and Endocrinology, Nordsjællands Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark
Novo Nordisk A/S, Søborg, Denmark

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Valeriya Lyssenko Steno Diabetes Center, Gentofte, Denmark
Lund University Diabetes Centre, Skåne University Hospital, Malmø, Sweden

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Leif Groop Lund University Diabetes Centre, Skåne University Hospital, Malmø, Sweden
Finnish Institute for Molecular Medicine (FIMM), Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland

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Jens J Holst Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Department of Biomedical Sciences, NNF Center for Basic Metabolic Research, The Panum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Allan A Vaag Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Department of Endocrinology, Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet), Copenhagen, Denmark

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Birger Thorsteinsson Department of Cardiology, Nephrology and Endocrinology, Nordsjællands Hospital, Hillerød, Denmark
Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Introduction Patients with type 1 diabetes are at daily risk of events of severe hypoglycaemia ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ). The distribution of these events is much skewed with a minority of subjects accounting for the vast majority of

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Xiaolei Hu Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, China
Department of Endocrinology, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China

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Fengling Chen Department of Endocrinology, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China

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human insulin analogues ( 1 ), especially in Asian populations ( 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ). Different from insulin autoimmune syndrome (IAS, also called Hirata disease), which is a condition characterized by spontaneous hypoglycaemia and is

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Jonathan Hazlehurst Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK

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Bernard Khoo Endocrinology, Division of Medicine, University College London, London, UK

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Carolina Brito Lobato Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Department of Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital – Amager and Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark

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Ibiyemi Ilesanmi Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK

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Sally Abbott Department of Dietetics, University Hospitals Coventry and Warwickshire NHS Trust, Coventry, UK

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Tin Chan Faculty of Medicine, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

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Sanesh Pillai Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK

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Kate Maslin School of Nursing and Midwifery, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK

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Sanjay Purkayastha Brunel University, London, UK
Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St Mary’s Hospital, London, UK

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Barbara McGowan Endocrinology, Guys’ and St Thomas’s NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Rob Andrews University of Exeter Medical School, Exeter, UK

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Eveleigh Nicholson Portsmouth Hospitals University NHS Trust, Portsmouth, UK

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Katherine McCullough Royal Surrey County Hospital, Guildford, UK

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Lorraine Albon University Hospitals Sussex NHS Foundation Trust, Worthing, UK

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Rachel Batterham Endocrinology, Division of Medicine, University College London, London, UK

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Georgios K Dimitriadis King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

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Shareen Forbes BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Gavin Bewick School of Life Course Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, UK

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Tricia M-M Tan Section of Endocrinology and Investigative Medicine, Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK

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increasing prevalence of bariatric surgery, clinicians are increasingly encountering complications of surgery ( 2 ). One such complication is post-bariatric hypoglycaemia (PBH) ( 3 ). PBH is usually defined as post-prandial hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia

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Dorte Glintborg Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark

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Hanne Mumm Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark

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Jens Juul Holst Department of Biomedical Sciences and NNF Centre for Basic Metabolic Research, The Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Marianne Andersen Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Odense University Hospital, Odense C, Denmark

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in insulin resistant states such as obesity and type 2 diabetes ( 3 ), whereas results in patients with PCOS are conflicting ( 4 , 5 , 6 ). Reactive hypoglycaemia (RH) is defined as a drop in blood glucose levels 1½–5 h after food consumption

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Lili Liu Department of Metabolism & Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Central South University, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Changsha, Hunan, China

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Zhuo Shao Department of General Surgery, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, Shanghai, China

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Ying Xia Department of Metabolism & Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Central South University, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Changsha, Hunan, China

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Jiabi Qin Department of Epidemiology & Health Statistics, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China

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Yang Xiao Department of Metabolism & Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Central South University, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Changsha, Hunan, China

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Zhiguang Zhou Department of Metabolism & Endocrinology, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
Key Laboratory of Diabetes Immunology, Central South University, Ministry of Education, National Clinical Research Center for Metabolic Diseases, Changsha, Hunan, China

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Zubing Mei Department of Anorectal Surgery, Shuguang Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China

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neuropathy ( 3 ). However, adverse events, such as severe hypoglycaemia and weight gain, are also strongly associated with long-term administration of insulin ( 4 ). To overcome this shortcoming, the development of new therapy agents is urgently needed

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Richard H Tuligenga INSERM U1018, Université Paris Sud, Centre for Research in Epidemiology and Population Health, Hôpital Paul Brousse, Bât 15/16, 16 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, 94807 Paris, Villejuif Cedex, France
INSERM U1018, Université Paris Sud, Centre for Research in Epidemiology and Population Health, Hôpital Paul Brousse, Bât 15/16, 16 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, 94807 Paris, Villejuif Cedex, France

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been inconclusive (12) . Recent randomised controlled trials (RCTs) show that intensive glycaemic control does not have beneficial effects on the rate of cognitive decline (13, 14, 15, 16) . The increased frequency of hypoglycaemia in patients treated

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Salem A Beshyah Department of Medicine, Dubai Medical College, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Diabetes and Endocrine Clinic, Mediclinic Airport Road Hospital, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

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Khawla F Ali Department of Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Medical University of Bahrain, Adliya, Bahrain

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Hussein F Saadi Department of Endocrinology, Medical Subspecialties Institute, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

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to dehydration, fatigue, dizziness, hypoglycaemia, and hypotension ( 2 , 3 ). Given such, several at-risk groups (i.e. the elders, the pregnant, and the sick) have been exempted from fasting. Despite the ease in restrictions, many with critical

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Amalie R Lanng Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Hellerup, Denmark

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Lærke S Gasbjerg Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Hellerup, Denmark
Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Natasha C Bergmann Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Hellerup, Denmark

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Sigrid Bergmann Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Hellerup, Denmark

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Mads M Helsted Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Hellerup, Denmark

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Matthew P Gillum Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Bolette Hartmann Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Jens J Holst Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Tina Vilsbøll Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Hellerup, Denmark
Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Gentofte, Denmark
Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Filip K Knop Center for Clinical Metabolic Research, Gentofte Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Hellerup, Denmark
Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Gentofte, Denmark
Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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glucose metabolism ( 2 ). It is well known that acute alcohol ingestion increases the risk of hypoglycaemia; most likely due to inhibitory effects of alcohol on hepatic gluconeogenesis ( 3 ). In addition, it is well known that chronic alcohol consumption

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