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, accompanied by an increase in inflammatory markers such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) ( 58 ). Both IL-6 and TNF-α can induce endothelial dysfunction and exacerbate arteriosclerosis by increasing ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression ( 59
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Introduction Epidemiological studies have concluded that cigarette smoking is associated with various chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease ( 1 ), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( 2 ), cancers ( 3 ), neurodegenerative