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Martijn J J Finken Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Aleid J G Wirix Department of Public and Occupational Health, EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Ines A von Rosenstiel-Jadoul Department of Pediatrics, Rijnstate Hospital, Arnhem, The Netherlands

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Bibian van der Voorn Department of Pediatric Endocrinology and Obesity Center CGG, Erasmus MC Sophia Children’s Hospital, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

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Mai J M Chinapaw Department of Public and Occupational Health, EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Michaela F Hartmann Steroid Research and Mass Spectrometry Unit, Laboratory for Translational Hormone Analytics, Department of Pediatric Endocrinology & Diabetology, Center of Child and Adolescent Medicine, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany

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Joana E Kist-van Holthe Department of Public and Occupational Health, EMGO Institute for Health and Care Research, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Stefan A Wudy Steroid Research and Mass Spectrometry Unit, Laboratory for Translational Hormone Analytics, Department of Pediatric Endocrinology & Diabetology, Center of Child and Adolescent Medicine, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany

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Joost Rotteveel Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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, 3 , 4 ). Studies show that obesity and hypertension tend to track from childhood to adulthood ( 5 , 6 ), which is worrisome. Glucocorticoids may be involved in the pathophysiology of obesity and obesity-associated hypertension, given their

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Greta B Raglan Department of Psychology, American University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA

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Louis A Schmidt Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behavior, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

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Jay Schulkin Department of Research, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA

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Introduction Stress reactions are by no means universal, and the activation of ‘stress hormones’, such as glucocorticoids or corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), is not necessarily the mark of a stress response ( 1 ). Some individuals have

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Siphiwe N Dlamini SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit (DPHRU), School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
Non-communicable Diseases Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa

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Zané Lombard Division of Human Genetics, National Health Laboratory Service, and School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

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Lisa K Micklesfield SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit (DPHRU), School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

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Nigel Crowther Department of Chemical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

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Shane A Norris SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit (DPHRU), School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

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Tracy Snyman Department of Chemical Pathology, National Health Laboratory Service and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

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Andrew A Crawford Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

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Brian R Walker BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Institute of Genetic Medicine to Translational & Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

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Julia H Goedecke SAMRC/Wits Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit (DPHRU), School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
Non-communicable Diseases Research Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa

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components, and related cardiometabolic risk factors, including measures of obesity, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance ( 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ). Cortisol may not be the only glucocorticoid involved in metabolic syndrome as humans also produce

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Trevor Lewis Physiotherapy Department, Aintree University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, UK

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Eva Zeisig Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Umeå Univerisity, Umeå, Sweden

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Jamie E Gaida University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia

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and associated metabolic conditions, such as insulin resistance ( 5 ), diabetes ( 6 ), hypercholesterolaemia ( 7 ), statins ( 8 ), abdominal fat ( 9 ), the sympathetic nervous system ( 10 , 11 ), and corticosteroid use ( 12 ). Glucocorticoids are a

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Paul-Martin Holterhus Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, UKSH, Campus Kiel and Christian Albrechts University, CAU, Kiel, Germany

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Alexandra Kulle Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, UKSH, Campus Kiel and Christian Albrechts University, CAU, Kiel, Germany

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Anne-Marie Till Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, UKSH, Campus Lübeck, Germany

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Caroline Stille Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, UKSH, Campus Lübeck, Germany

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Tabea Lamprecht Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, UKSH, Campus Kiel and Christian Albrechts University, CAU, Kiel, Germany

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Simon Vieth Department of Pediatrics I, Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, UKSH, Campus Kiel and Christian-Albrechts-University, CAU, Kiel, Germany

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Melchior Lauten Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, University Hospital of Schleswig-Holstein, UKSH, Campus Lübeck, Germany

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Introduction High-dose glucocorticoids are indispensable in the treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) ( 1 ). Two different highly potent synthetic glucocorticoids are used in the current standard protocols, namely

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Clara Lundetoft Clausen Center of Research & Disruption of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital - Amager and Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark

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Trine Holm Johannsen Department of Growth and Reproduction, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Niels Erik Skakkebæk Department of Growth and Reproduction, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Hanne Frederiksen Department of Growth and Reproduction, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Anders Juul Department of Growth and Reproduction, Copenhagen University Hospital - Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Thomas Benfield Center of Research & Disruption of Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital - Amager and Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark
Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

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critical illness including septic shock, community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), and acute respiratory distress syndrome ( 7 , 8 ). In the management of hypoxic COVID-19, dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid, plays a crucial role in reducing mortality ( 9

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Paal Methlie Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway
Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway

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Steinar Hustad Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway

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Ralf Kellman Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway

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Bjørg Almås Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway

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Martina M Erichsen Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway

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Eystein S Husebye Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway
Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway

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Kristian Løvås Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway
Department of Clinical Science, Department of Medicine, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway

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Introduction Glucocorticoid and androgen hormone measurements play a decisive role in the diagnosis and management of many disorders of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and gonads. Examples include Addison's disease (AD), Cushing

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Theodoros Karampitsakos Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, ATTIKON University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolism, ARETAIEION University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

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Fotini Kanouta Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolism, First Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, ALEXANDRA University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolism, ARETAIEION University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

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Christos Chatzakis Second Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, IPPOKRATEIO General Hospital of Thessaloniki, Aristotle, University of Thessaloniki, Athens, Greece

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Vassilios Bakoulas Athens, Greece

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Alexandros Gryparis Department of Speech and Language Therapy, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece
Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolism, ARETAIEION University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

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Petros Drakakis Third Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, ATTIKON University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

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Djuro Macut Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Diseases of Metabolism, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolism, ARETAIEION University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

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George Mastorakos Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolism, ARETAIEION University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece

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) ( Fig. 1 ). The expression of the plCRH gene is increased by endogenous (maternal or fetal adrenal) or exogenous synthetic glucocorticoids (sGCs), in opposition to the inhibitory effect these molecules exert on hypothalamic CRH synthesis ( 3 , 5 , 12

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Heike Hoyer-Kuhn Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany

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Angela Huebner Department of Paediatrics, University Children’s Hospital Dresden, Dresden, Germany

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Anette Richter-Unruh University Children’s Hospital Bochum, Bochum, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany

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Markus Bettendorf University Children’s Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany

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Tilman Rohrer University Children’s Hospital Homburg, Homburg, Germany

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Klaus Kapelari University Children’s Hospital Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria

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Stefan Riedl Department of Pediatric, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
St.Anna Kinderspital, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

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Klaus Mohnike Department of Biometrics, Otto von Guericke Universität Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany

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Helmuth-Günther Dörr University Children’s Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany

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Friedrich-Wilhelm Roehl Department of Biometrics, Otto von Guericke Universität Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany

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Katharina Fink Institute of Epidemiology and Medical Biometry, ZIBMT, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany

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Reinhard W Holl Institute of Epidemiology and Medical Biometry, ZIBMT, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany

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Joachim Woelfle University Children’s Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany

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were described in a large cohort of children with CAH from the AQUAPE CAH registry ( 4 ). Treatment in classic CAH is necessary to compensate for glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid deficiencies and also to blunt the ACTH secretion, the major driver

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Caio Jordão Teixeira Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

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Junia Carolina Santos-Silva Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

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Dailson Nogueira de Souza Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

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Alex Rafacho Department of Physiological Sciences, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil

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Gabriel Forato Anhe Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil

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Silvana Bordin Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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polarization, which is characterized by low levels of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, TNF-α and IL-6, has been previously demonstrated to be induced by glucocorticoids ( 37 ). In the context of pancreatic islets, M2 infiltration promotes cell proliferation

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