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Introduction The prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) among obese individuals has steadily increased over the past few decades, emerging as a global public health issue ( 1 ). Arteriosclerosis is an essential predictor of CVD events ( 2
Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London Medical School, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
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Department of Endocrinology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK
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Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Makarios Children's Hospital, Nicosia, Cyprus
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Sussex Community NHS Trust, Brighton, UK
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Developmental Endocrinology Research Group, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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The University of Dublin, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
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in children and adolescents (CA) with PWS are well described, with weight gain and hyperphagia leading to obesity later on in childhood if access to food is uncontrolled, with premature mortality primarily due to obesity-related complications in
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diseases ( 4 ), as well as obesity ( 5 ). Clinical studies reveal that active cigarette smoking is associated with detectable abnormalities in brain morphology, blood flow, biochemistry, micro-structural integrity, and multiple neurocognitive domains of