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CUNY Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy, New York, New York, USA
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Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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time, and affordability ( 5 ). Despite these advantages, early reports established cross-reactivity between estrogenic metabolites (including unconjugated and conjugated estrone, a weak estrogen) and anti-estradiol antibodies used in immunoassays ( 4
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Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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risk for failure to attain peak bone mass or for early loss of BD, due to estrogen deficiency at an early age ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ). Consequently, women with POI are advised to use hormone replacement therapy (HRT) ( 6 ). In contrast to POI, the
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skeletal growth is not linear. Both androgens and estrogens contribute to bone size expansion and mineralization in both sexes, with the first process mainly driven by androgens and the second by estrogens ( 25 ). However, since in males, part of the
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–10 years later compared with males, mostly due to the protective effect of estrogens on the atherosclerotic process, there is a steady increase in this risk after the transition to menopause ( 2 ). This is mostly evident in women with early menopause (EM
Molecular Reproductive Research Group, Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, FORTH, Heraklion, Greece
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Reproductive Medicine Centre, Skåne University Hospital Malmö, Malmö, Sweden
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Reproductive Medicine Centre, Skåne University Hospital Malmö, Malmö, Sweden
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to be regulated by sex hormones. BAFF suppression by testosterone has been demonstrated in animal studies and indirectly in humans when comparing men with high and low testosterone levels ( 4 ). In contrast, estrogens have been demonstrated to induce
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Introduction Endometriosis is a debilitating, chronic, inflammatory, progressive, estrogen-dependent disease characterized by the presence of endometrial tissues outside the uterine cavity, presenting clinically as dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia
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Department of Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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indirectly through the estrogen receptor (ER) after the transformation of testosterone to estradiol by the aromatase enzyme ( 32 , 37 ). In detail, testosterone modulates bone metabolism throughout life in males ( 38 ). The increase in the production of
Division of Biomedical Information Analysis, Iwate Tohoku Medical Megabank Organization, Disaster Reconstruction Center, Iwate Medical University, Yahaba, Japan
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Faculty of Health Science, Bukkyo University, Kyoto, Japan
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), postnatal estrogen exposure ( 29 , 30 ), and perinatal overnutrition ( 31 ) affect the ARC Kiss1 expression and/or thereby pulsatile luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion in adulthood. Furthermore, undernutrition during postnatal periods alters pubertal
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gonadotropin-inhibiting effects of placental estrogens. The HPG axis becomes progressively more active but with different kinetics in boys and girls (reviewed in ( 3 )). The LH levels are higher in boys than girls and the opposite is true for FSH. LH levels
Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolism, ARETAIEION University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Unit of Endocrinology, Diabetes Mellitus and Metabolism, ARETAIEION University Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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adrenals, leading thus to the production of cortisol and DHEAS ( Fig. 2 ). In humans and primates, at term, the placenta does not express cytochrome P450c17, an enzyme necessary for estrogen synthesis from progesterone. In placental syncytiotrophoblast