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Søs Dragsbæk Larsen Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Christine Dalgård Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Department of Public Health, Environmental Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Mathilde Egelund Christensen Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

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Sine Lykkedegn Hans Christian Andersen Children’s Hospital, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark

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Louise Bjørkholt Andersen Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Herlev Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark

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Marianne Andersen Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Department of Medical Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark

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Dorte Glintborg Department of Medical Endocrinology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark

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Henrik Thybo Christesen Department of Clinical Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Hans Christian Andersen Children’s Hospital, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark

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Introduction High blood pressure (BP) increases cardiovascular risk and constitutes one of the primary modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular disease ( 1 ). Elevated BP in childhood increases the risk of prehypertension and hypertension in

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Laura Hasse Department of Pediatric Dermatology and Allergology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany

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Dagmar Jamiolkowski Department of Pediatric Dermatology and Allergology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany

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Felix Reschke Department of Pediatric Diabetology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany

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Kerstin Kapitzke Department of Pediatric Diabetology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany

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Jantje Weiskorn Department of Pediatric Diabetology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany

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Olga Kordonouri Department of Pediatric Diabetology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany

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Torben Biester Department of Pediatric Diabetology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany

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Hagen Ott Department of Pediatric Dermatology and Allergology, Children’s Hospital Auf der Bult, Hannover, Germany

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and above, childhood obesity is characterized as a body mass index (BMI) over the 97th sex- and age-related reference percentile ( 3 ). In individuals with childhood obesity, health-related quality of life (QoL) is impaired ( 4 , 5 ) and pivotal

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Martin Bidlingmaier Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, LMU Klinikum, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany

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Helena Gleeson Department of Endocrinology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, UK

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Ana-Claudia Latronico Department of Internal Medicine, Discipline of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Sao Paulo Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

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Martin O Savage Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, UK

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very early diagnosis in children with pubertal disorders. In 2016, we reported the case of an asymptomatic girl, who was carrying an MKRN3 mutation that was detected in childhood and was followed until the development of pubertal signs ( 35 ). The

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Emmanuelle Motte UFR des Sciences de la Santé, Simone Veil, Université Versailles St-Quentin en Yvelines, Montigny le Bretonneux, France
Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris (APHP), Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes for Children, Bicêtre Paris-Sud, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France

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Anya Rothenbuhler Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris (APHP), Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes for Children, Bicêtre Paris-Sud, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
APHP, Plateforme d’Expertise Maladies Rares Paris Sud, Bicêtre Paris Sud Hospital, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France

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Stephan Gaillard Department of Neurosurgery, Foch Hospital, Suresnes, France

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Najiba Lahlou APHP, Department of Hormonal Biology, Cochin Hospital, Paris, France

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Cécile Teinturier Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris (APHP), Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes for Children, Bicêtre Paris-Sud, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
APHP, Plateforme d’Expertise Maladies Rares Paris Sud, Bicêtre Paris Sud Hospital, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France

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Régis Coutant Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Angers University Hospital, Angers, France

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Agnès Linglart Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris (APHP), Department of Endocrinology and Diabetes for Children, Bicêtre Paris-Sud, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
APHP, Plateforme d’Expertise Maladies Rares Paris Sud, Bicêtre Paris Sud Hospital, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France

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). The resulting hypercortisolism causes considerable morbidity in childhood and adolescence, predominantly affecting growth and pubertal development ( 1 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ). The diagnosis is often delayed by at least 2 years after the first

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Ayse Nurcan Cebeci Paediatric Endocrinology, Department of Friedrich-Alexander University Hospital, Erlangen, Germany

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Vera Schempp Paediatric Endocrinology, University Hospital, Bonn, Germany

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Katharina Förtsch Paediatric Endocrinology, University Hospital, Düsseldorf, Germany

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Bettina Gohlke Paediatric Endocrinology, University Hospital, Bonn, Germany

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Michaela Marx Paediatric Endocrinology, Department of Friedrich-Alexander University Hospital, Erlangen, Germany

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Helmuth-Guenther Dörr Paediatric Endocrinology, Department of Friedrich-Alexander University Hospital, Erlangen, Germany

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Joachim Woelfle Paediatric Endocrinology, Department of Friedrich-Alexander University Hospital, Erlangen, Germany

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. ( https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-018-0478-9 ) 14 Dos Santos TJ Martos-Moreno GÁ Muñoz-Calvo MT Pozo J Rodríguez-Artalejo F & Argente J . Clinical management of childhood hyperthyroidism with and without Down syndrome: a longitudinal study

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Britt J van Keulen Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Pediatric Endocrinology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Conor V Dolan Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Bibian van der Voorn Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Sophia Kinderziekenhuis, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

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Ruth Andrew Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK

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Brian R Walker Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, Edinburgh, UK
Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

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Hilleke Hulshoff Pol Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands

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Dorret I Boomsma Department of Biological Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Joost Rotteveel Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Pediatric Endocrinology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Martijn J J Finken Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Pediatric Endocrinology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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differences ( 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ). Sexual dimorphism in HPA-axis activity has been suggested to be already present in early childhood. A recent meta-analysis suggested that boys and girls differed in basal HPA-axis activity, as assessed by salivary

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Kimberly Kuiper Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands

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Hanna Swaab Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands

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Nicole Tartaglia eXtraordinarY Kids Clinic, Developmental Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital Colorado, Aurora, Colorado
Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado

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Sophie van Rijn Clinical Neurodevelopmental Sciences, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands

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complex situations (action-oriented) ( 9 ). It is thus not surprising that the increasing ability to regulate emotions in childhood is associated with adaptive outcomes in multiple domains, including school readiness ( 10 ), better social skills ( 11

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Yu Ah Hong Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea

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Kyung-Do Han Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, Soongsil University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

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Jae-Seung Yun Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea

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Eun Sil Sil Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea

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Seung-Hyun Ko Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea

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Sungjin Chung Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea

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early childhood, and factors that are related to certain metabolic diseases in adulthood ( 5 ). Several epidemiologic studies have reported that short adult height in the normal population is associated with adverse outcomes, including hypertension

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E Kohva Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

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P J Miettinen Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland

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S Taskinen Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
Department of Pediatric Surgery, Children’s Hospital, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland

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M Hero Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland

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A Tarkkanen Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

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T Raivio Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

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missed in early childhood, we limited the analysis to those boys operated before the age of three ( 23 ). In this subanalysis, the age at operation had declined from 24.5 ± 5.4 months in boys operated between 2004 and 2007 to 13.7 ± 5.3 months in those

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Kirsten Davidse Department of Internal Medicine-Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Anneloes van Staa Research Centre Innovations in Care, Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Wanda Geilvoet Department of Internal Medicine-Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Judith P van Eck Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Karlijn Pellikaan Department of Internal Medicine-Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Janneke Baan Department of Internal Medicine-Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Anita C S Hokken-Koelega Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Academic Centre for Growth, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Dutch Growth Research Foundation, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Erica L T van den Akker Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Theo Sas Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Diabeter, National Diabetes Care and Research Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Sabine E Hannema Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Department of Paediatrics, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands

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Aart Jan van der Lely Department of Internal Medicine-Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Laura C G de Graaff Department of Internal Medicine-Endocrinology, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Academic Centre for Growth, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Introduction Improved diagnostics and treatment options have increased the life expectancy of children with genetic and/or congenital disorders ( 1 ). As a result, more and more patients with childhood-onset chronic conditions are making the

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