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Yijun Tang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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Yao Chen Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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Jiayi Wang Department of Urology, Ren Ji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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Qianwen Zhang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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Yirou Wang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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Yufei Xu Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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Xin Li Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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Jian Wang International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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Xiumin Wang Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Shanghai Children’s Medical Center, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

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secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, gynecomastia, and gender inconsistency between gonads and chromosomes showing 46,XY. Complete clinical data and genetic analysis results were evaluated. Subjects with any one of the following conditions were

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E Kohva Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

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P J Miettinen Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland

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S Taskinen Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
Department of Pediatric Surgery, Children’s Hospital, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland

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M Hero Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland

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A Tarkkanen Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

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T Raivio Children’s Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

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. Society for Endocrinology UK guidance on the evaluation of suspected disorders of sexual development: emphasising the opportunity to predict adolescent pubertal-failure through a neonatal diagnosis of absent mini-puberty. Clinical Endocrinology 2016

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Estelle Bonnet Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service d’endocrinologie pédiatrique, Bron, France

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Mathias Winter Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service de psychopathologie du développement, Bron, France
Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Centre de biologie et pathologie Est, Service d’hormonologie, d’endocrinologie moléculaire et des maladies rares, Bron, France

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Delphine Mallet Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Centre de biologie et pathologie Est, Service d’hormonologie, d’endocrinologie moléculaire et des maladies rares, Bron, France

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Ingrid Plotton Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service Endocrinologie Moléculaire et Maladies Rares, Bron, France

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Claire Bouvattier Centre Hospitalier Universitaire AP-HP, Hôpital Bicêtre, Service d’endocrinologie pédiatrique Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN Université Paris Saclay, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France

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Maryse Cartigny Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire Lille, Hôpital Jeanne de Flandre, Unité d’Endocrinologie pédiatrique Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Lille, France

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Laetiti Martinerie Centre Hospitalier Universitaire AP-HP, Hôpital Robert Debré, Service d’Endocrinologie pédiatrique Centre de Référence des Maladies Rares Endocriniennes de la Croissance et du Développement – CRMERC Université de Paris, Paris, France

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Michel Polak Centre Hospitalier Universitaire AP-HP, Hôpital universitaire Necker Enfants malades, Endocrinologie gynécologie diabétologie pédiatriques Centre de référence des maladies endocriniennes rares de la croissance et du développement Inserm U1016, institut Imagine, Paris, France

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Anne Bachelot Centre Hospitalier Universitaire AP-HP, Hôpital Pitié Salpêtrière, Department of Endocrinology and Reproductive Medicine Centre de Référence des Maladies Endocriniennes Rares de la Croissance et du Développement Centre de Référence des pathologies gynécologiques rares IE3M, Paris, France

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Frédéric Huet Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Dijon-Bourgogne, Hôpital d’Enfants, Service de Pédiatrie Multidisciplinaire, Dijon, France

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Sabine Baron Centre Hospitalier universitaire de Nantes, Hôpital Mère-Enfant, Service de Pédiatrie, Nantes, France

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Muriel Houang Centre Hospitalier Universitaire AP-HP, Hôpital Armand Trousseau, Service d'Explorations Fonctionnelles Endocriniennes, Paris, France

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Sylvie Soskin Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, CHU Hautepierre, Service de Pédiatrie 1, Strasbourg, France

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Anne Lienhardt Centre hospitalier universitaire Limoges, Hôpital de la Mère et de l’enfant, Service de Pédiatrie, Limoges, France

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Jérôme Bertherat Groupement Hospitalier Universitaire de Paris, AP-HP, Hôpital Cochin, Service d'Endocrinologie, Paris, France

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Cyril Amouroux Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Montpellier, Hôpital Lapeyronie, Service de Néphrologie et Endocrinologie Pédiatrique Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Montpellier, France

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Aurore Bouty Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service de chirurgie Uro-viscérale et de Transplantation de l’Enfant, Bron, France

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Lise Duranteau AP-HP, Hôpital Bicêtre, Unité de gynécologie de l’adolescente Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN Université Paris Saclay, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France

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Rémi Besson Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire Lille, Hôpital Jeanne de Flandre, Service de chirurgie pédiatrique Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Lille, France

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Alaa El Ghoneimi Centre Hospitalier Universitaire AP-HP Robert Debré, Service de Chirurgie Viscérale et Urologie pédiatrique Centre de Référence des Maladies Endocriniennes de la croissance et du développement – CRMERC Université de Paris, Paris, France

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Dinane Samara-Boustani Centre Hospitalier Universitaire AP-HP, Hôpital Necker Enfants malades, Endocrinologie gynécologie diabétologie pédiatriques Centre de référence des maladies endocriniennes rares de la croissance et du développement, Paris, France

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François Becmeur Hospitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, CHU Hautepierre, Service de chirurgie pédiatrique, Strasbourg, France

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Nicolas Kalfa Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Montpellier, Hôpital Lapeyronie, Service de Chirurgie Viscérale et Urologie Pédiatrique Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du Développement Génital Constitutif Sud Institut Debrest de Santé Publique IDESP, UMR INSERM, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France

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Françoise Paris Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Montpellier, Hôpital Lapeyronie, Service de Néphrologie et Endocrinologie Pédiatrique Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Montpellier, France

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François Medjkane Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire Lille, Hôpital Jeanne de Flandre, Service de psychiatrie de l’enfant et de l’adolescent Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Lille, France

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Aude Brac de la Perrière Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Est, Service d’endocrinologie, Bron, France

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Patricia Bretones Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service d’endocrinologie pédiatrique, Bron, France
Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France

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Hervé Lejeune Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service de médecine de la reproduction, Bron, France
Université Claude Bernard, Lyon, France

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Marc Nicolino Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service d’endocrinologie pédiatrique, Bron, France
Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
Université Claude Bernard, Lyon, France

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Pierre Mouriquand Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service de chirurgie Uro-viscérale et de Transplantation de l’Enfant, Bron, France
Université Claude Bernard, Lyon, France

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Daniela-Brindusa Gorduza Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France
Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service de chirurgie Uro-viscérale et de Transplantation de l’Enfant, Bron, France

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Claire-Lise Gay Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hôpital Femme-Mère-Enfant, Service d’endocrinologie pédiatrique, Bron, France
Centre National de Référence Maladies Rares du développement génital du fœtus à l’adulte DEV-GEN, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Bron, France

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available for 68% ( n  = 21) of patients. The median (range) baseline testosterone/DHT ratio was 8.8 (4.5–26.5). Among the 21 baseline ratios, 33% ( n  = 7) were greater than 20, and among the 12 ratios established during mini-puberty, 75% ( n  = 9) were

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Agnieszka Adamska Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland

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Paulina Tomczuk-Bobik Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland

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Anna Beata Popławska-Kita Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland

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Katarzyna Siewko Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland

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Angelika Buczyńska Clinical Research Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, Białystok, Poland

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Piotr Szumowski Department of Nuclear Medicine, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland

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Łukasz Żukowski Department of Nuclear Medicine, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland

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Janusz Myśliwiec Department of Nuclear Medicine, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland

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Monika Zbucka-Krętowska Department of Gynecological Endocrinology and Adolescent Gynecology, Medical University of Bialystok, Białystok, Poland

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Marcin Adamski Faculty of Computer Science, Bialystok University of Technology, Białystok, Poland

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Adam Jacek Krętowski Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
Clinical Research Centre, Medical University of Bialystok, Białystok, Poland

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of circulating AMH levels throughout life can be split into several distinct phases. A peak shortly after birth confirms that girls also undergo a 'mini puberty' of the neonate, following which there is a sustained rise to the age of 9 years. There is

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Veronica Astro Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia

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Elisabetta Fiacco Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia

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Kelly Johanna Cardona-Londoño Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia

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Ilario De Toma Sequentia Biotech SL, Barcelona, Spain

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Hams Saeed Alzahrani Department of Genetic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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Jumana Alama Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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Amal Kokandi Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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Taha Abo-Almagd Abdel-Meguid Hamoda Department of Urology, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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Majed Felemban Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Center of Innovation in Personalized Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

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Antonio Adamo Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia

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disabilities, and micropenis are KS signs at puberty. Gynecomastia, increased body mass, and low or absent sperm count, eventually leading to infertility, are commonly diagnosed in adult KS males ( 6 , 7 , 8 ). In addition, KS patients are at higher risk of

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Lukas Plachy Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Petra Dusatkova Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Klara Maratova Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Shenali Anne Amaratunga Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Dana Zemkova Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Vit Neuman Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Stanislava Kolouskova Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Barbora Obermannova Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Marta Snajderova Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Zdenek Sumnik Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Jan Lebl Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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Stepanka Pruhova Department of Pediatrics, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and Motol University Hospital, V Úvalu, Prague, Czech Republic

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inadequately increased adrenocorticotropic hormone ( 16 , 17 ). Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH) was diagnosed as delayed puberty (no breast development (Tanner stage 1) in girls ≥13 years old or testes <4 mL in boys ≥14 years old) associated with low

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Jessica S Jarmasz Department of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

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Yan Jin Department of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

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Hana Vakili Department of Pathology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA

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Peter A Cattini Department of Physiology & Pathophysiology, Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

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libitum. Male 3–4 week old 171hGH/CS TG CD-1 mice were used since growth hormone levels are at their highest during puberty (onset at days 21–35) ( 28 ). Mice were randomly assigned to receive RCD (fat 14 kcal%, carbohydrate 60 kcal%, and protein 25 kcal

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Wenrui Wang Department of Endocrinology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, People’s Republic of China

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Chuan Zhang Department of Endocrinology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, People’s Republic of China

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, MafA , and Ngn3 ; ‘Stomach mini-organs’ 3–6 (134, 136, 138) An increasing body of evidence suggests that reduced nutritional stress can improve β-cell function ( 37 ). Low-calorie diets ( 41 ), hypoglycemic drugs ( 42 ), dietary additives

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