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Maria Stelmachowska-Banaś Department of Endocrinology, The Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education, Warsaw, Polska, Poland

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Izabella Czajka-Oraniec Department of Endocrinology, The Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education, Warsaw, Polska, Poland

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Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) belong to a new group of anticancer drugs targeting T-cell proteins involved in the activation of immune response toward malignancies. Their introduction into clinical practice was a milestone in modern cancer treatment. However, the significant advantage of ICIs over conventional chemotherapy in terms of therapeutic efficacy is accompanied by new challenges related to specific side effects. ICI-induced immune system activation could lead to the loss of self-tolerance, presenting as autoimmune inflammation and dysfunction of various tissues and organs. Thus, the typical side effects of ICIs include immune-related adverse events (irAEs), among which endocrine irAEs, affecting numerous endocrine glands, have been commonly recognized. This review aimed to outline the current knowledge regarding ICI-induced endocrine disorders from a clinical perspective. We present updated information on the incidence and clinical development of ICI-induced endocrinopathies, including the most frequent thyroiditis and hypophysitis, the rarely observed insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and primary adrenal insufficiency, and the recently described cases of hypoparathyroidism and lipodystrophy. Practical guidelines for monitoring, diagnosis, and treatment of ICI-related endocrine toxicities are also offered. Rising awareness of endocrine irAEs among oncologists, endocrinologists, and other health professionals caring for patients receiving ICIs could contribute to better safety and efficacy. As immunotherapy becomes widespread and approved for new types of malignancies, increased incidences of endocrine irAEs are expected in the future.

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Margret J Einarsdottir Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Department of Endocrinology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Penelope Trimpou Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Department of Endocrinology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Gudmundur Johannsson Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Department of Endocrinology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Oskar Ragnarsson Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Department of Endocrinology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
Wallenberg Center for Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Objective

It is unknown whether glucocorticoid (GC)-induced adrenal insufficiency may cause premature mortality in GC users. We conducted a retrospective cohort study to investigate if undiagnosed and undertreated GC-induced adrenal insufficiency is a contributor to premature death in GC users.

Methods

Information on dispensed prescriptions in West Sweden from 2007 to 2014 was obtained from the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register. Cause of death was collected from the Swedish Cause of Death Register. Of 223,211 patients who received oral GC prescriptions, 665 died from sepsis within 6 months of their last prescription. Three hundred of these patients who had died in hospital were randomly selected for further investigation. Medical records were initially reviewed by one investigator. Furthermore, two additional investigators reviewed the medical records of patients whose deaths were suspected to be caused by GC-induced adrenal insufficiency.

Results

Of 300 patients (121 females, 40%), 212 (75%) were prescribed GC treatment at admission. The mean age was 76 ± 11 years (range 30–99). Undiagnosed or undertreated GC-induced adrenal insufficiency was considered a probable contributor to death by at least two investigators in 11 (3.7%) patients. In five of these 11 cases, long-term GC therapy was abruptly discontinued during hospitalization. Undiagnosed or undertreated GC-induced adrenal insufficiency was considered a possible contributing factor to death in a further 36 (12%) patients.

Conclusion

GC-induced adrenal insufficiency is an important contributor to premature death in GC users. Awareness of the disorder during intercurrent illness and following cessation of GC treatment is essential.

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Alessandro Barbato Auxo-endocrinology Unit, Meyer Children's Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy
Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

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Giulia Gori Medical Genetics Unit, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Michele Sacchini Metabolic and Muscular Unit, Meyer Children's Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Francesca Pochiero Metabolic and Muscular Unit, Meyer Children's Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Sara Bargiacchi Medical Genetics Unit, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Giovanna Traficante Medical Genetics Unit, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Viviana Palazzo Medical Genetics Unit, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Lucia Tiberi Medical Genetics Unit, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Claudia Bianchini Pediatric Neurology and Neurogenetics Unit and Laboratories, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Davide Mei Pediatric Neurology and Neurogenetics Unit and Laboratories, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Elena Parrini Pediatric Neurology and Neurogenetics Unit and Laboratories, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Tiziana Pisano Pediatric Neurology and Neurogenetics Unit and Laboratories, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Elena Procopio Metabolic and Muscular Unit, Meyer Children's Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy

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Renzo Guerrini Pediatric Neurology and Neurogenetics Unit and Laboratories, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy
NEUROFARBA Department, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

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Angela Peron Medical Genetics Unit, Meyer Children’s Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy
Department of Clinical and Experimental Biomedical Sciences “Mario Serio”, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

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Stefano Stagi Auxo-endocrinology Unit, Meyer Children's Hospital IRCCS, Florence, Italy
Department of Health Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

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Context

Cytochrome C oxidase (COX) is the fourth component of the respiratory chain and is located within the internal membrane of mitochondria. COX deficiency causes an inherited mitochondrial disease with significant genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity. Four clinical subtypes have been identified, each with distinct phenotypes and genetic variants. Mitochondrial complex IV deficiency nuclear type 4 (MC4DN4) is a form of COX deficiency associated with pathogenic variants in the SCO1 gene.

Case description

We describe three patients with MC4DN4 with developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE), hypopituitarism, and SCO1 pathogenic variants. These patients’ phenotypes considerably differ from previously reported MC4DN4 phenotypes as they associate DEE with progressive hypopituitarism and survival beyond the first months after birth. Pituitary deficiency in these patients progressively worsened and mainly involved growth hormone secretion and thyroid function.

Conclusions

Our findings expand knowledge of phenotypic variability in MC4DN4 and suggest that SCO1 is a candidate gene for genetic hypopituitarism and DEE.

Significance statement

Our paper describes three patients affected by MC4DN4 with hypopituitarism and developmental and epileptic encephalopathy (DEE), two features that have never been associated with this condition. In addition, we reviewed the clinical features of all previous cases of MC4DN4 to give the other clinicians a wide picture of the clinical phenotype of this genetic disease. We hope that the publication of our data may help others to identify this disease and consider the chance to analyze the SCO1 gene in cases of DEE associated with pituitary dysfunction. Our article contributes to expanding the spectrum of genetic hypopituitarism and proposes a model to explain an association between this condition, mitochondrial anomalies, and neurodevelopmental defects.

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Jia Liu Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China

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Lin Zhang Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China

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Jing Fu Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China

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Qiu Wang Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China

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Guang Wang Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China

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Objective

Prolactin (PRL) has been demonstrated as a metabolic hormone to regulate energy metabolism recently. The present study aims to investigate the association between PRL and metabolic alterations in different obesity phenotypes.

Methods

A total of 451 drug-naive participants were recruited, comprising 351 obese patients and 100 age- and sex-matched healthy participants with normal weight. PRL, anthropometric, and clinical parameters were measured.

Results

In the obesity group, 15.1% (53/351) were categorized as 'metabolically healthy obesity (MHO)'. Besides favorable blood pressure, glucose, and lipids profiles, the MHO group exhibited increased PRL, and lower levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and adipose tissue insulin resistance (adipo-IR) than the metabolically unhealthy obesity (MUHO) group (PRL, HOMA-IR, and adipo-IR: P < 0.01; hsCRP: P < 0.05). The severe MUHO group showed significantly decreased PRL levels than the mild MUHO group (P < 0.05). Multivariate linear regression analysis indicated that fasting plasma glucose (FBG) and adipo-IR were significantly associated with PRL (FBG: β = −0.263, P < 0.05; adipo-IR: β = −0.464, P < 0.01). Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that hsCRP (OR = 0.824) and PRL (OR = 1.211) were independent predictors of MHO (all P < 0.01).

Conclusion

The MHO group had significantly increased circulating PRL levels when compared with the control and MUHO groups, and multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that PRL was independent predictors of MHO. Our findings suggested that increased circulating PRL might be a compensatory response for favoring energy metabolism during obesity.

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Anastasia P Athanasoulia-Kaspar Clinical Neuroendocrinology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany

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Matthias K Auer Clinical Neuroendocrinology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany

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Günter K Stalla Clinical Neuroendocrinology, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany

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Mira Jakovcevski Department of Stress Neurobiology and Neurogenetics, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany

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Objective

Patients with non-functioning pituitary adenomas exhibit high morbidity and mortality rates. Growth hormone deficiency and high doses of glucocorticoid substitution therapy have been identified as corresponding risk factors. Interestingly, high levels of endogenous cortisol in, e.g., patients with post-traumatic stress disorder or patients with Cushing’s disease have been linked to shorter telomere length. Telomeres are noncoding DNA regions located at the end of chromosomes consisting of repetitive DNA sequences which shorten with aging and hereby determine cell survival. Therefore, telomere length can serve as a predictor for the onset of disease and mortality in some endocrine disorders (e.g., Cushing’s disease).

Design/methods

Here, we examine telomere length from blood in patients (n = 115) with non-functioning pituitary adenomas (NFPA) in a cross-sectional case–control (n = 106, age-, gender-matched) study using qPCR. Linear regression models were used to identify independent predictors of telomere length.

Results

We show that patients with NFPA exhibited shorter telomeres than controls. No significant association of indices of growth hormone deficiency (IGF-1-level-SDS, years of unsubstituted growth hormone deficiency etc.) with telomere length was detected. Interestingly, linear regression analysis showed that hydrocortisone replacement dosage in patients with adrenal insufficiency (n = 52) was a significant predictor for shorter telomere length (β = 0.377; P = 0.018) independent of potential confounders (gender, age, BMI, arterial hypertension, systolic blood pressure, number of antihypertensive drugs, total leukocyte count, waist-to-hip ratio, waist circumference, diabetes mellitus type 2, HbA1c, current statin use). Median split analysis revealed that higher hydrocortisone intake (>20 mg) was associated with significantly shorter telomeres.

Conclusion

These observations strengthen the importance of adjusted glucocorticoid treatment in NFPA patients with respect to morbidity and mortality rates.

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Soraya Puglisi Internal Medicine 1, Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy

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Paola Perotti Internal Medicine 1, Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy

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Mattia Barbot Endocrinology Unit, Department of Medicine DIMED, University of Padua, Padua, Italy

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Paolo Cosio Internal Medicine 1, Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy

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Carla Scaroni Endocrinology Unit, Department of Medicine DIMED, University of Padua, Padua, Italy

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Antonio Stigliano Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Sant’Andrea Hospital University of Rome, Rome, Italy

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Pina Lardo Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Sant’Andrea Hospital University of Rome, Rome, Italy

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Valentina Morelli Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan and Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy

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Elisa Polledri Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Laboratory of Toxicology, University of Milan and Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy

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Iacopo Chiodini Endocrinology Unit, Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan and Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda, Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy

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Giuseppe Reimondo Internal Medicine 1, Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy

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Anna Pia Internal Medicine 1, Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy

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Massimo Terzolo Internal Medicine 1, Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy

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Objective

Metyrapone has been approved for the treatment of patients with Cushing’s syndrome (CS), but only few retrospective clinical studies are available. The aim of our study was the prospective assessment of metyrapone as pre-operative treatment.

Design and methods

Before adrenalectomy, seven patients with ACTH-independent CS due to adrenal adenoma were prospectively treated with metyrapone for 3 months in three tertiary academic centers, with endocrine work-up and clinical evaluation at screening and at predefined evaluation time points (Days 14, 31, 48, 65, 82).

Results

In all patients, UFC levels decreased up to normal range from baseline to Day 82 (609 (188–1476) vs 69 (28–152) nmol/24 h, P < 0.02), with a reduction of serum and salivary cortisol levels, and no significant increase of plasma ACTH and serum DHEAS levels. Clinical improvement was reported on quality of life (+16.7 (+4.2; +52.00) points, P < 0.04) and pressure control (systolic pressure, −25 (−52; −10) mmHg, P < 0.01; diastolic pressure, −16 (−50; +2 mmHg), P < 0.03). No significant change in weight, electrolytes, glycemic and lipid profile was reported. Although in women a significant increase of testosterone and androstenedione was reported, no worsening of clinical hyperandrogenism was observed. All drug-related adverse events (nausea, fatigue, low grade fever, edema of lower limbs and facial rash) were grade 1 or 2 and generally transient.

Conclusions

This prospective pilot study demonstrated that metyrapone is effective in normalizing biochemical and clinical parameters in patients with CS due to adrenal adenoma before surgical intervention, with minimal side effects.

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Jia Liu Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China

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Min Liu Department of Radiology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China

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Zhe Chen Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China

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Yumei Jia Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China

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Guang Wang Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China

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Objective

Autoimmune thyroiditis (AIT) is the most common autoimmune thyroid disease. Longitudinal relaxation time mapping (T1-mapping) measured by MRI is a new technique for assessing interstitial fibrosis of some organs, such as heart and liver. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between T1-mapping value and thyroid function and determine the usefulness of T1-mapping in identifying thyroid destruction in AIT patients.

Methods

This case–control study recruited 57 drug-naïve AIT patients and 17 healthy controls. All participants were given thyroid MRI, and T1-mapping values were measured using a modified look-locker inversion-recovery sequence.

Results

AIT patients had significantly higher thyroid T1-mapping values than the healthy controls (1.077 ± 177 vs 778 ± 82.9 ms; P < 0.01). A significant increase in thyroid T1-mapping values was presented along with the increased severity of thyroid dysfunction (P < 0.01). Correlation analyses showed that increased thyroid T1-mapping values were associated with higher TSH and lower FT3 and FT4 levels (TSH: r = 0.75; FT3: r = −0.47; FT4: r = −0.72; all P < 0.01). Receiver-operating characteristic curve analysis revealed a high diagnostic value of T1-mapping values for the degree of thyroid destruction (area under the curve was 0.95, 95% CI: 0.90–0.99, P < 0.01).

Conclusions

AIT patients have higher thyroid T1-mapping values than the healthy controls, and the T1-mapping values increased with the progression of thyroid dysfunction. Thyroid T1-mapping value might be a new index to quantitatively evaluate the degree of thyroid destruction in AIT patients.

Open access
Eva Olga Melin Diabetes Research Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Research and Development, Region Kronoberg, Växjö, Sweden

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Magnus Hillman Diabetes Research Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

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Mona Landin-Olsson Diabetes Research Laboratory, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Department of Endocrinology, Skane University Hospital, Lund, Sweden

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Objective

To explore associations between high midnight salivary cortisol (MSC) secretion and high blood pressure (BP) in type 1 diabetes (T1D).

Methods

Cross-sectional study of 196 adult patients with T1D (54% men). Associations between high MSC (≥9.3 nmol/L) and high systolic BP (>130 mmHg), and high diastolic BP (>80 mmHg) were explored for all patients, users and non-users of antihypertensive drugs (AHD). Adjustments were performed for age, sex, diabetes-related variables, p-creatinine, smoking, physical inactivity, depression and medication.

Results

The prevalence of high MSC differed between patients with high and low systolic BP in all 196 patients: 39 vs 13% (P = 0.001); in 60 users of AHD: 37 vs 12% (P = 0.039), and in 136 non-users of AHD: 43 vs 13% (P = 0.012). Significant associations with high systolic BP were for all patients: physical inactivity (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 6.5), high MSC (AOR 3.9), abdominal obesity (AOR 3.7), AHD (AOR 2.9), age (per year) (AOR 1.07), and p-creatinine (per µmol/L) (AOR 1.03); for 60 users of AHD: high MSC (AOR 4.1) and age (per year) (AOR 1.11); for 136 non-users of AHD: abdominal obesity (AOR 27.4), physical inactivity (AOR 14.7), male sex (AOR 9.0), smoking (AOR 7.9), and age (per year) (AOR 1.08). High MSC was not associated with high DBP.

Conclusions

In adult patients with T1D, high systolic BP was associated with physical inactivity, high MSC secretion, abdominal obesity, p-creatinine, age, and AHD, the latter indicating treatment failure.

Open access
Carina Ankarberg-Lindgren Department of Pediatrics, Institute of Clinical Sciences, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

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Aneta Gawlik Department of Pediatrics and Pediatric Endocrinology, Medical University of Silesia, School of Medicine, Katowice, Poland

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Berit Kriström Department of Clinical Sciences/Pediatrics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden

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Laura Mazzanti Pediatric Endocrinology and Rare Disease Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Science, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

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Elisabeth J Ruijgrok Department of Pharmacy, Erasmus Medical Center – Sophia Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Theo C J Sas Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Sophia Children’s Hospital, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Diabeter, National Diabetes Care and Research Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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Objective

Transdermal estradiol patches are primarily designed for adult women. No low-dose patches are licensed for pubertal induction in hypogonadal girls. Low doses can be achieved by cutting a matrix patch into smaller pieces. However, the manufacturers do not guarantee stability or utility of cut estradiol patches. The aim of the study was to assess 1-month stability of cut estradiol patches from four different manufacturers in the laboratory at room temperature (+21°C) and at an elevated temperature (+35°C).

Design and methods

Estraderm MX 50 µg, Systen 50 µg and Oesclim 25 µg matrix patches were cut into eight pieces while Estradot 50 µg small patches were cut in half. The cut patches were stored in their respective pouches at +21°C or at +35°C for up to 1 month. The estradiol drug was extracted from the patch by ethyl acetate n-hexane and determined by radioimmunoassay.

Results

Storage at +21°C or +35°C up to 1 month did not reduce the estradiol concentration in Estraderm MX, Systen and Oesclim patches. However, although the estradiol in Estradot patches was not affected by storage at +21°C, at +35°C, estradiol decreased by 57% (±1%) in cut pieces.

Conclusions

Unused Estraderm MX, Systen and Oesclim patch pieces may be stored for at least 1 month at ≤+35°C. Where estradiol patches for children are not available, cut pieces of these or similar patches can be used for pubertal induction. The Estradot patch was too small to properly cut into low doses and not stable in elevated temperatures.

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Monia Cito Diabetes Research Institute, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy

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Silvia Pellegrini Diabetes Research Institute, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy

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Lorenzo Piemonti Diabetes Research Institute, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy

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Valeria Sordi Diabetes Research Institute, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy

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The experience in the field of islet transplantation shows that it is possible to replace β cells in a patient with type 1 diabetes (T1D), but this cell therapy is limited by the scarcity of organ donors and by the danger associated to the immunosuppressive drugs. Stem cell therapy is becoming a concrete opportunity to treat various diseases. In particular, for a disease like T1D, caused by the loss of a single specific cell type that does not need to be transplanted back in its originating site to perform its function, a stem cell-based cell replacement therapy seems to be the ideal cure. New and infinite sources of β cells are strongly required. In this review, we make an overview of the most promising and advanced β cell production strategies. Particular hope is placed in pluripotent stem cells (PSC), both embryonic (ESC) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC). The first phase 1/2 clinical trials with ESC-derived pancreatic progenitor cells are ongoing in the United States and Canada, but a successful strategy for the use of PSC in patients with diabetes has still to overcome several important hurdles. Another promising strategy of generation of new β cells is the transdifferentiation of adult cells, both intra-pancreatic, such as alpha, exocrine and ductal cells or extra-pancreatic, in particular liver cells. Finally, new advances in gene editing technologies have given impetus to research on the production of human organs in chimeric animals and on in situ reprogramming of adult cells through in vivo target gene activation.

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